Paper title:
 Mediation as a Diplomatic Tool in Ottoman Capitulations
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.4316/CC.2022.01.02
Published in:
Issue 1 (Vol. 28) / 2022
Publishing date:
2022-07-31
Pages:
29-54
Author(s):
Hilal Çiftçi
Abstract:
Despite the substantial body of literature on capitulations in the Ottoman Empire, hardly any of it explores the role of mediation in the process of concessions becoming a heavy burden for the Ottoman Empire. However, there is an undeniable connection between the advent of mediation in Ottoman diplomacy and the spread of capitulations. As the Ottoman Empire weakened militarily, especially from the end of the 17th century, it was forced to seek peace through the mediation of European states (especially France and England). Subsequently, the Ottomans started to grant new concessions as a token of gratitude to these states for assisting them in signing a treaty with their opponents (especially Austria and Russia). As a result of this situation, mediation, which was a technique used sparingly under international law, was repurposed into a diplomatic tool used to increase European states’ capitulations. In this sense, this study aims to establish a link between the emergence of the notion of mediation in Ottoman diplomacy and the increase of capitulations granted to European states. This study sheds more light on how the Ottoman Empire became trapped in a vicious spiral of growing capitulations in exchange for mediations.
Keywords:
Ottoman Empire, European states, House of Islam, House of War, Diplomacy, Mediation, Capitulations.




References:
1. Abou-El-Haj Rifa’at A., Ottoman Diplomacy at Karlowitz, in “Journal of the American Oriental Society”, Vol. 87, 1967, No. 4, pp. 498-512.
2. Ahmad Feroz, Ottoman Perceptions of the Capitulations 1800-1914, in “Journal of Is-lamic Studies”, Vol. 11, 2000, pp. 1-20.
3. Angell James B., The Turkish Capitulations, in “The American Historical Review”, Vol. 6, 1901, No. 2, pp. 254-259.
4. Arslantürk Ahmet H. (Ed.), Abdurrahman Abdi Paşa Kanunnâmesi [The Law of Abdurrahman Abdi Pasha], İstanbul, Okur Kitaplığı, 2012, 128 p.
5. Bağış Ali İhsan, İngiltere'nin Osmanlı İmparatorluğu Toprak Bütünlüğü Politikası ve Türk Diplomasisinin Çaresizliği [Britain's Territorial Integrity Policy of the Ottoman Empire and the Desperation of Turkish Diplomacy], in Çağdaş Türk Diplomasisi: 200 Yıllık Süreç. Ankara, Türk Tarih Kurumu, 15-17 Ekim 1997: sempozyuma sunulan tebliğler [Contemporary Turkish diplomacy: 200 years of process. Ankara, Turkish Historical Society, 15-17 October 1997: Papers submitted to the symposium], Ankara, Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1999, pp. 45-54.
6. Boogert van den Maurits H., The Capitulations and the Ottoman Legal System: Qadis, Consuls, and Beratlıs in the 18th Century, Leiden, Brill Publication, 2005, 324 p.
7. Boogert van den Maurits H., The Spoils of Peace: What the Dutch Got Out of Carlowitz, in Colin Heywood, Ivan Parvev (Eds.), The Treaties of Carlowitz (1699). Antecedents, Course and Consequences, Leiden, Brill Publication, 2020, pp. 56-72.
8. Doğan Güner, İstenmeyen Barış Pasarofça’da Osmanlı-Venedik Diplomatları ve Diplo-matik Tavırlar [Undesirable Peace Passarowitz. Ottoman-Venetian Diplomats and Diplomatic Attitudes], in Gültekin Yildiz (Ed.), Harp ve Sulh 300. Yılında Pasarofça Antlaşması Sempozyum Bildirileri [Passarowitz Treaty Symposium Proceedings on the 300th Anniversary of War and Peace], İstanbul, 2019, Merkez Basım ve Yayınevi, pp. 111-127.
9. Eşiyok B. Ali, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nun Dünya Ekonomisine Eklemlenmesinde Bir Dönüm Noktası: 1838 Serbest Ticaret Anlaşması [A Turning Point at adding Ottoman Empire into The World Economy: 1838 agreement of Free Commerce], in “Mülkiye Dergisi” [Journal of Mülkiye], Vol. 34, 2010, No. 266, pp. 67-108.
10. Faroqhi Suraiya, The Ottoman Empire and the World Around It, New York, I. B. Tauris, 2004, 304 p.
11. Groot Alexander H. de, The Historical Development of the Capitulatory Regime in the Ottoman Middle East from the Fifteenth to the Nineteenth Centuries, in “Oriente Moderno”, Nuova serie, Vol. 22 (83), 2003, No. 3, pp. 575-604.
12. Heywood Colin, This Great Work: Lord Paget and the Processes of English Mediating Diplomacy in the Latter Stages of the Sacra Lega War, 1697–1698, in Colin Heywood, Ivan Parvev (Eds.), The Treaties of Carlowitz (1699). Antecedents, Course and Consequences, Leiden, Brill Publication, 2020, pp. 35-55.
13. Horniker Arthur Leon, Anglo-French Rivalry in the Levant from 1583 to 1612, in “The Journal of Modern History”, Vol. XVIII, 1946, No. 4, pp. 289-305.
14. Isom-Verhaaren Chiristine, Kâfirle İttifak. 16. Yüzyılda Osmanlı-Fransız Antlaşması [Alliance with the Infidel, Ottoman-French Treaty in the 16th Century], İstanbul, Kitap Yayınevi, 2015, 256 p.
15. Işıksel Güneş, II. Selim’den III. Selim’e Osmanlı Diplomasisi: Birkaç Saptama [Otto-man Diplomacy from Selim II to Selim III: A Few Detection], in Seyfi Kenan (Ed.), Nizâm-ı Kadîm’den Nizâm-ı Cedîd’e III. Selim ve Dönemi [Selim III and His Era from Ancient Regime to New Order], İstanbul, İSAM, 2010, pp. 315-338.
16. İnalcık Halil, Doğu Batı Makaleler I [East West Articles I], East West Publications, Ankara, 2010, 411 p.
17. İnalcık Halil, İmtiyâzât [Privileges], in Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslam Ansiklopedisi [TDVİA], Vol. 5, pp. 244-252.
18. Kınlı Onur, Osmanlı’da Modernleşme ve Diplomasi [Modernization and Diplomacy in the Ottoman Empire], Ankara, İmge Kitabevi, 2010, 221 p.
19. Koçak Zülfiye, Son Osmanlı-Avusturya Mücadelesinde Değişen Dengeler ve Ziştovi An-tlaşması [Changing Balances in the Last Ottoman-Austrian Struggle and the Treaty of Sistov], in “Gazi Akademik Bakış Dergisi” [Journal of Gazi Academic Perspective], Vol. 11, 2018, no. 22, pp. 261-289.
20. Koçu Reşat Ekrem, Osmanlı Muahedeleri ve Kapitülâsyonlar 1300-1920 ve Lozan Muahedesi [Ottoman Treaties and Capitulations 1300-1920 and the Treaty of Lausanne], İstanbul, 1934, 482 p.
21. Kuran Timur, The Long Divergence. How Islamic Law Held Back the Middle East, Princeton – Oxford, Princeton University Press, 2011, 421 p.
22. Kütükoğlu Mübühat S., Ahidnâme [Ahdname], in Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslam Ansiklo-pedisi [TDVİA], Vol. 1, p. 536-540.
23. Mehmed Subhî, Subhî Tarihi [Subhi Chronicle] in TBMM Kütüphanesi Yazma Eserler [Parliament Library. Manuscripts] H. K. 3-a.
24. Ortaylı İlber, Osmanlı’da Milletler ve Diplomasi. Seçme Eserleri III [Nations and Di-plomacy in the Ottoman Empire. Selection Works III], İstanbul, İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları, 2017, 340 p.
25. Panaite Viorel, Western Diplomacy, Capitulations and Ottoman Law in the Mediter-ranean (16th - 17th Centuries), in Seyfi Kenan (Ed.), The Ottomans and Europe: Travel, Encounter and Interaction from the Early Classical Period until the End of the 18th Century, İstanbul, ISAM Publications, 2010, pp. 357-387.
26. Roider Karl, The Reluctant Ally: Austria’s Policy in the Austro-Turkish War, 1737-1739, Louisiana, Louisiana State University Press, 1972, 198 p.
27. Sahin Emrah, Ottoman Institutions, Capitulations, in Andrea L. Stanton (Eds.), Cultur-al Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, & Africa. An Encyclopedia, Vol. I, SAGE Publications, 2012, p. 177-179.
28. Sander Oral, Anka’nın Yükselişi ve Düşüşü. Osmanlı Diplomasi Tarihi Üzerine Bir De-neme [The Rise and Fall of Phoenix. An Essay on the History of Ottoman Diplomacy], Ankara, İmge Kitabevi, 2000, 333 p.
29. Savaş Ali İbrahim, Osmanlı Diplomasisi [Ottoman Diplomacy], İstanbul, 3F Publica-tions, 2007, 86 p.
30. Savaş Ali İbrahim, Osmanlı Diplomatikasına Ait Nâme-i Hümâyun, Ahidnâme-i Hü-mâyûn ve Mektup Tahlilleri [Nâme-i Hümâyun, Ahidnâme-i Hümâyûn and Letter Analysis of the Ottoman Diplomatic], in “OTAM Dergisi” [Journal of Ottoman Historical Studies Center], Vol. 7, 1996, pp. 219-253.
31. Schefer M. Charles (Ed.), İstanbul’da Fransız Elçiliği. Marki de Bonnac’ın Tarihi Hatı-rat ve Belgeleri [French Embassy in Istanbul. Historical Memoirs and Documents of the Marquis de Bonnac], Ankara, Türk Tarih Kurumu, 2007, 344 p.
32. Silahdâr Fındıklılı Mehmed Ağa, Silahdâr Tarihi [Silahdâr Chronicle], Vol. 1-2, İstanbul, Devlet Matbaası, 1928.
33. Soy Bayram, Lord Palmerston’un Osmanlı Toprak Bütünlüğünü Koruma Siyaseti [Lord Palmerston’s Policy of the Ottoman Territorial Integrity], in “Hacettepe Üniversitesi Türkiyat Araştırmaları Dergisi” [Journal of Hacettepe University Turkic Studies] (HÜTAD), Vol. 7, 2007, pp. 141-168.
34. Tabakoğlu Ahmet, Türk İktisat Tarihi [History of Turkish Economy], Istanbul, Dergah Yayınları, 1994, 564 p.
35. Talbot Michael, British-Ottoman Relations, 1713-1779: Commerce, Diplomacy, and Violence, in “State Papers Online, Eighteenth Century 1714-1782. Part IV: Scandinavia, Eastern Europe, and Turkey”, Cengage Learning (EMEA) Ltd, 2018.
36. Uzunçarşılı İsmail Hakkı, Osmanlı Tarihi [Ottoman History], Vol. IV/I, Ankara, Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1988, 687 p.
37. Yeşil Fatih, Pasarofça Antlaşması ve Osmanlı Diplomasisindeki Değişim [The Treaty of Passarowitz and the Change in Ottoman Diplomacy], in Gültekin Yildiz (Ed.), Harp ve Sulh. 300. Yılında Pasarofça Antlaşması Sempozyum Bildirileri [Passarowitz Treaty Sym¬posium Proceedings on the 300th Anniversary of War and Peace], İstanbul, Merkez Basım ve Yayınevi, 2019, pp. 103-109.
38. Zinkeisen Johann Wilhelm, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu Tarihi [History of Ottoman Em-pire], Vol. 5, İstanbul, Yeditepe Yayınları, 2011, 739 p.